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<title>Tacit knowledge</title>

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Tacit knowledge

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tacit" redirects here. For the software company, see <a href="Tacit_Software" title="Tacit Software">Tacit Software</a>.</div>

Tacit knowledge or implicit knowledge is <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> that is difficult to extract or articulate—as opposed to <a href="Conceptualize" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptualize">conceptualized</a>, <a href="Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">formalized</a>, codified, or <a href="Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">explicit knowledge</a>—and is therefore more difficult to convey to others through verbalization or writing. Examples of this include individual <a href="Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>, <a href="Personal_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal experience">experience</a>, <a href="Insight" title="Insight">insight</a>, <a href="Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">motor skill</a>, and <a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> An example of "explicit" information that can be recorded, conveyed, and understood by the recipient is the knowledge that London is in the United Kingdom. Speaking a language, riding a bicycle, kneading dough, playing an instrument, or designing and operating sophisticated machinery, on the other hand, all require a variety of knowledge that is difficult or impossible to <a href="Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">transfer</a> to other people and is not always known "explicitly," even by skilled practitioners.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3></div>

The term tacit knowing is attributed to <a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a>'s Personal Knowledge (1958).<a href="#cite_note-:3-2">[2]</a> In his later work, The Tacit Dimension (1966), Polanyi made the assertion that "we can know more than we can tell."<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> He states not only that there is knowledge that cannot be adequately articulated by <a href="Verbal_intelligence" title="Verbal intelligence">verbal</a> means, but also that all knowledge is rooted in tacit knowledge. While this concept made most of its impact on <a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, <a href="Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">education</a> and <a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>—all fields involving humans—it was also, for Polanyi, a means to show humankind's evolutionary continuity with animals. Polanyi describes that many animals are creative, some even have <a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">mental representations</a>, but can only possess tacit knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This excludes humans, however, who developed the capability of articulation and therefore can transmit partially explicit knowledge. This relatively modest difference then turns into a big practical advantage, but there is no unexplained evolutionary gap.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3></div>

Tacit knowledge can be defined as skills, ideas and experiences that are possessed by people but are not codified and may not necessarily be easily expressed.<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a> With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular interaction,<a href="#cite_note-Goffin-6">[6]</a> and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice in a particular context and transmitted through <a href="Social_network" title="Social network">social networks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-7">[7]</a> To some extent it is "<a href="Knowledge_capture" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge capture">captured</a>" when the knowledge holder joins a network or a <a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">community of practice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goffin-6">[6]</a>

Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge are: riding a bike, playing the piano, driving a car, hitting a nail with a hammer,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> putting together pieces of a complex jigsaw puzzle, and interpreting a complex statistical equation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a>

In the field of <a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>, the concept of tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that cannot be fully <a href="Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">codified</a>. An individual can acquire tacit knowledge without language. <a href="Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">Apprentices</a>, for example, work with their <a href="Mentorship" title="Mentorship">mentors</a> and learn craftsmanship not only through language but also by <a href="Observation" title="Observation">observation</a>, imitation, and practice.

The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is <a href="Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>. Without some form of shared experience, it is extremely difficult for people to share each other's <a href="Thinking_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinking process">thinking processes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lam-9">[9]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terrain">Terrain</h4></div>

Tacit knowledge can be divided according to the terrain. Terrains affect the process of changing tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. Terrains are of three kinds:

<ul><li>Relational tacit knowledge: Relational tacit knowledge could be made explicit, but not made explicit for reasons that touch on deep principles that have to do with either the nature or location of knowledge of the way humans are made. This knowledge refers to things we could describe in principle if someone put effort into describing them.</li>

<li>Somatic tacit knowledge: Somatic tacit knowledge has to do with properties of individuals bodies and brains as physical things. It includes things our bodies can do but we cannot describe how, like riding a bike. In principle it is possible for it to be explicated as the outcome of research done by human scientists.</li>

<li>Collective tacit knowledge: Collective tacit knowledge is a kind of knowledge that we do not know how to make explicit and that we cannot envisage how to explicate. It is the domain of knowledge that is located in society, such as the rules for language - it has to do with the way society is constituted.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Embodied_knowledge">Embodied knowledge</h4></div>

Tacit knowledge has been described as “<a href="Know-how" class="mw-redirect" title="Know-how">know-how</a>” as opposed to “know-what” (<a href="Fact" title="Fact">facts</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:2-11">[11]</a> This distinction between “know-how” and “know-what” is considered to date back to a 1945 paper by <a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a> given to the <a href="Aristotelian_Society" title="Aristotelian Society">Aristotelian Society</a> in London.<a href="#cite_note-Ryle-12">[12]</a> In his paper, Ryle argues against the (<a href="Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectualist</a>) position that all knowledge is knowledge of <a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Propositions</a> (“know-what”), and therefore the view that some knowledge can only be defined as “know-how”. Ryle's argument has, in some contexts, come to be called "<a href="Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">anti-intellectualist</a>". There are further distinctions such as "know-why" (science) or "know-who" (networking).

Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written down. On this account, knowing-how or “embodied knowledge” is characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-7">[7]</a> Embodied knowledge represents a learned capability of a human body's <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous</a> and <a href="Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40Sensky-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differences_from_explicit_knowledge">Differences from explicit knowledge</h2></div>

Although it is possible to distinguish conceptually between <a href="Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">explicit</a> and tacit knowledge, they are not separate and discrete in practice.<a href="#cite_note-Lam-9">[9]</a> The interaction between these two modes of knowing is vital for the creation of new knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

Tacit knowledge can be distinguished from explicit knowledge in three major areas:<a href="#cite_note-:3-2">[2]</a>

<ul><li>Codifiability and mechanism of transferring knowledge: Explicit knowledge can be codified (for example, 'can you write it down' or 'put it into words' or 'draw a picture'), and easily transferred without the knowing subject. In contrast, tacit knowledge is <a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitive</a> and unarticulated knowledge that cannot be communicated, understood or used without the 'knowing subject'. Unlike the transfer of explicit knowledge, the transfer of tacit knowledge requires close interaction and the buildup of shared understanding and trust among them.</li>

<li>Main methods for the acquisition and accumulation: Explicit knowledge can be generated through <a href="Logical_deduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical deduction">logical deduction</a> and acquired through practical experience in the relevant context. In contrast, tacit knowledge can only be acquired through practical experience in the relevant context.</li>

<li>Potential of aggregation and modes of appropriation: Explicit knowledge can be aggregated at a single location, stored in objective forms, and <a href="Appropriation_of_knowledge" title="Appropriation of knowledge">appropriated</a> without the participation of the knowing subject. Tacit knowledge, in contrast, is personal and contextual; it is distributed across knowing subjects, and cannot easily be aggregated. The realization of its full potential requires the close involvement and cooperation of the knowing subject.</li></ul>

The process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit or specifiable knowledge is known as codification, articulation, or specification. The tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified, but can only be transmitted via training or gained through personal experience. There is a view against the distinction, where it is believed that all <a href="Propositional_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional knowledge">propositional knowledge</a> (knowledge that) is ultimately reducible to <a href="Practical_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical knowledge">practical knowledge</a> (knowledge how).<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nonaka–Takeuchi_model">Nonaka–Takeuchi model</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="SECI_model_of_knowledge_dimensions" title="SECI model of knowledge dimensions">SECI model of knowledge dimensions</a></div>

<a href="Ikujiro_Nonaka" title="Ikujiro Nonaka">Ikujiro Nonaka</a> proposed a model of knowledge creation that explains how tacit knowledge can be converted to explicit knowledge, both of which can be converted into organisational knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-:1-16">[16]</a> While introduced by Nonaka in 1990,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> the model was further developed by <a href="Hirotaka_Takeuchi" title="Hirotaka Takeuchi">Hirotaka Takeuchi</a> and is thus known as the Nonaka–Takeuchi model.<a href="#cite_note-:1-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In this model, tacit knowledge is presented variously as uncodifiable ("tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified") and codifiable ("transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge is known as codification"). This ambiguity is common in the <a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a> literature.

Assuming that knowledge is created through the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge, the Nonaka–Takeuchi model postulates four different modes of knowledge conversion:<a href="#cite_note-:1-16">[16]</a>

<ol><li>from tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or <a href="Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a>;</li>

<li>from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or externalization;</li>

<li>from explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or <a href="Combinational_logic" title="Combinational logic">combination</a>; and</li>

<li>from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or <a href="Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">internalization</a>.</li></ol>

Nonaka's view may be contrasted with Polanyi's original view of "tacit knowing". Polanyi believed that while <a href="Declarative_knowledge" title="Declarative knowledge">declarative knowledge</a> may be needed for acquiring skills, it is unnecessary for using those skills once the novice becomes an expert. Indeed, it does seem to be the case that, as Polanyi argued, when people acquire a skill, they acquire a corresponding understanding that defies articulation.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<ul><li>One of the most convincing examples of tacit knowledge is <a href="Face_perception" title="Face perception">facial recognition</a>: one knows a person's face, and can recognize it among a thousand, indeed a million. Yet, people usually cannot tell how they recognize that face, so most of this cannot be put into words. When one sees a face, they are not conscious about their knowledge of the individual features (eye, nose, mouth), but rather see and recognize the face as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li>

<li>Another example of tacit knowledge is the notion of <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a> itself: it is not possible to <a href="Language_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Language learning">learn a language</a> just by being taught the rules of <a href="Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>—a <a href="Native-speaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Native-speaker">native-speaker</a> picks it up at a young age, almost entirely unaware of the <a href="Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">formal grammar</a> which they may be taught later.</li>

<li>Other examples are how to ride a bike, how tight to make a bandage, or knowing whether a senior surgeon feels an intern may be ready to learn the intricacies of surgery; this can only be learned through personal experimentation.</li>

<li><a href="Harry_M._Collins" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry M. Collins">Harry M. Collins</a> showed that Western laboratories long had difficulties in successfully replicating an experiment that a team led by <a href="Vladimir_Braginsky" title="Vladimir Braginsky">Vladimir Braginsky</a> at <a href="Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a> had been conducting for 20 years (the experiment was measuring the quality, <a href="Q_factor" title="Q factor">Q</a>, factors of <a href="Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a>). Western scientists became suspicious of the Russian results and it was only when Russian and Western scientists conducted the measurements collaboratively that the trust was reestablished. Collins argues that laboratory visits enhance the possibility for the transfer of tacit knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer steel process</a> is another example: <a href="Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a> sold a patent for his advanced <a href="Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a> process and was subsequently sued by the purchasers after they could not get it to work. In the end, Bessemer set up his own steel company because he knew how to do it, even though he could not convey it to his patent users.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li>

<li>When <a href="Matsushita_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsushita Corporation">Matsushita</a> (now Panasonic) started developing its automatic home <a href="Bread_machine" title="Bread machine">bread-making machine</a> in 1985, an early problem was how to mechanize the dough-<a href="Kneading" title="Kneading">kneading</a> process, a process that takes a master baker years of practice to perfect. To learn this tacit knowledge, a member of the software development team, Ikuko Tanaka, decided to volunteer herself as an apprentice to the head baker of the Osaka International Hotel, who was reputed to produce the area's best bread. After a period of imitation and practice, one day she observed that the baker was not only stretching, but also twisting the dough in a particular fashion ("twisting stretch"), which turned out to be important in the success of his method. The Matsushita home bakery team drew together eleven members from completely different specializations and cultures: product planning, mechanical engineering, control systems, and software development. The "twisting stretch" motion was finally achieved by a prototype machine after a year of iterative experimentation by the engineers and team members working closely together, combining their explicit knowledge. For example, the engineers added ribs to the inside of the dough case in order to hold the dough better as it is being churned. Another team member suggested a method (later patented) to add yeast at a later stage in the process, thereby preventing the yeast from over-fermenting in high temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-:1-16">[16]</a>: 284 </li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Activity_theory" title="Activity theory">Activity theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_apprenticeship" title="Cognitive apprenticeship">Cognitive apprenticeship</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_map" title="Concept map">Concept map</a></li>

<li><a href="Consensus_reality" title="Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Decoding_the_Disciplines" title="Decoding the Disciplines">Decoding the Disciplines</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">Decision making</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Dispersed_knowledge" title="Dispersed knowledge">Dispersed knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuzzy_concept" title="Fuzzy concept">Fuzzy concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden curriculum</a></li>

<li><a href="Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">Intuition</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">Knowledge by acquaintance</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_tagging" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge tagging">Knowledge tagging</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Logical consequence</a></li>

<li><a href="Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Situated_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Situated knowledge">Situated knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_assumption" title="Tacit assumption">Tacit assumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Threshold_knowledge" title="Threshold knowledge">Threshold knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/Information%20and%20Knowledge%20Management/Key_Concepts_of_IKM/tacit_and_explicit_knowledge.html">"Tacit and Explicit Knowledge | Key Concepts in Information and Knowledge Management"</a>. www.tlu.ee. Retrieved 2024-12-10.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:3-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_2-1">b</a> <a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a>. 1958. Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-226-67288-3</bdi>.

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<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a>. 1966. The Tacit Dimension. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 4.

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<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHéderPaksi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Héder, Mihály; Paksi, Daniel (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Ftraddisc20184418">"Non-Human Knowledge According to Michael Polanyi"</a>. Tradition and Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical. 44 (1): 50–66. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Ftraddisc20184418">10.5840/traddisc20184418</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFChugh2015" class="citation book cs1">Chugh, Ritesh (2015). "Do Australian Universities Encourage Tacit Knowledge Transfer?". Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management. pp. 128–135. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5220%2F0005585901280135">10.5220/0005585901280135</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-989-758-158-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Goffin-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goffin_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goffin_6-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoffinKoners2011" class="citation journal cs1">Goffin, K.; Koners, U. (2011). "Tacit Knowledge, Lessons Learnt, and New Product Development". <a href="Journal_of_Product_Innovation_Management" title="Journal of Product Innovation Management">Journal of Product Innovation Management</a>. 28 (2): 300–318. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5885.2010.00798.x">10.1111/j.1540-5885.2010.00798.x</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Schmidt-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_7-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchmidtHunter1993" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, Frank L.; Hunter, John E. (February 1993). "Tacit Knowledge, Practical Intelligence, General Mental Ability, and Job Knowledge". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2 (1): 8–9. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.ep10770456">10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770456</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145203923">145203923</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEngel2008" class="citation journal cs1">Engel, P. J. H. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01421590802144260">"Tacit knowledge and Visual Expertise in Medical Diagnostic Reasoning: Implications for medical education"</a>. Medical Teacher. 30 (7): e184 – e188. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01421590802144260">10.1080/01421590802144260</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18777417">18777417</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCollins2013" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Harry M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/871293266">Tacit and explicit knowledge</a>. The University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-00421-1</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/871293266">871293266</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-:2-11"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_11-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/Information%20and%20Knowledge%20Management/Key_Concepts_of_IKM/tacit_and_explicit_knowledge.html">"Tacit and Explicit Knowledge | Key Concepts in Information and Knowledge Management"</a>. www.tlu.ee. Retrieved 2021-04-15.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Ryle-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Ryle_12-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRyle1945" class="citation journal cs1">Ryle, Gilbert (1945). "Knowing How and Knowing That: The Presidential Address". Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 46: 1–16. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faristotelian%2F46.1.1">10.1093/aristotelian/46.1.1</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4544405">4544405</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-40Sensky-13"><a href="#cite_ref-40Sensky_13-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSensky2002" class="citation journal cs1">Sensky, Tom (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fapt.8.5.387">"Knowledge Management"</a>. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 8 (5): 387–395. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fapt.8.5.387">10.1192/apt.8.5.387</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAngioni2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Angioni, Giulio (2011). Fare, dire, sentire: l'identico e il diverso nelle culture [Doing, saying, feeling: the identical and the different in cultures] (in Italian). Il maestrale. pp. 26–99. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-88-6429-020-1</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Hetherington, S, (2011) How to Know: A Practicalist Conception of Knowledge, Wiley-Blackwell, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780470658123</bdi>.

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<li id="cite_note-:1-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-3">d</a> <a href="Ikujiro_Nonaka" title="Ikujiro Nonaka">Nonaka, Ikujiro</a>, and <a href="Hirotaka_Takeuchi" title="Hirotaka Takeuchi">Hirotaka Takeuchi</a>. 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B-qxrPaU1-MC">The Knowledge-creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-509269-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/knowledgecreatin00nona">Available</a> at the <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a> (registration required).

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<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="Ikujiro_Nonaka" title="Ikujiro Nonaka">Nonaka, Ikujiro</a>. 1990. Management of Knowledge Creation. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun-sha.

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<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Xu, F. 2013. "The Formation and Development of Ikujiro Nonaka's Knowledge Creation Theory. Pp. 60-76 in Towards Organizational Knowledge: The Pioneering Work of Ikujiro Nonaka, edited by G. von Krogh, et al. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a>. [1966] 1983. The Tacit Dimension. Gloucester: Doubleday & Company Inc. p. 4.

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<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCollins2001" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, H. M. (February 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orca.cf.ac.uk/71069/1/wrkgpaper1.pdf">"Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire"</a> (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 31 (1): 71–85. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631201031001004">10.1177/030631201031001004</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145429576">145429576</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Collins, Harry M. 2010. Tacit and Explicit Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226113807.

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<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGordon" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, James Edward. The new science of strong materials. Penguin Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780691180984</bdi>.</cite>

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</ol></div> 23. Synaply.io | <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.synaply.io/types-of-knowledge-sharing/">types of knowledge sharing</a> Author "Ethan Moore" Posted April 2, 2025.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAngioni2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Giulio_Angioni" title="Giulio Angioni">Angioni, Giulio</a> (2004). "Doing, Thinking, Saying". In Sanga; Ortalli (eds.). Nature Knowledge. New York: Berghahm Books. pp. 249–261.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBaoZhao2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bao, Yongjian; Zhao, Shuming (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessperspectives.org/index.php/journals/problems-and-perspectives-in-management/issue-2/micro-contracting-for-tacit-knowledge-a-study-of-contractual-arrangements-in-international-technology-transfer">"MICRO Contracting for Tacit Knowledge: A study of contractual arrangements in international technology transfer"</a>. Problems and Perspectives in Management. 2 (2): 279–303.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBrohm1999" class="citation book cs1">Brohm, R. (1999). "Bringing Polanyi onto the theatre stage: a study on Polanyi applied to Knowledge Management". Proceedings of the ISMICK Conference. <a href="Erasmus_University_Rotterdam" title="Erasmus University Rotterdam">Erasmus University Rotterdam</a>. pp. 57–69.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBrohm2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Brohm, R. (2005). Polycentric Order in Organizations (Thesis). <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1765%2F6911">1765/6911</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789058920959</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCastillo2002" class="citation journal cs1">Castillo, Jose (2002). "A Note on the Concept of Tacit Knowledge". Journal of Management Inquiry. 11 (1): 46–57. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1056492602111018">10.1177/1056492602111018</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145515948">145515948</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCollins2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Harry_Collins" title="Harry Collins">Collins, Harry M.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orca.cf.ac.uk/71069/1/wrkgpaper1.pdf">"Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire"</a> (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 31 (1): 71–85. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631201031001004">10.1177/030631201031001004</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145429576">145429576</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCollins2010" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Harry M. (2010). Tacit and Explicit Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780226113807</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGladwell2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Malcolm_Gladwell" title="Malcolm Gladwell">Gladwell, Malcolm</a> (2005). <a href="Blink%3A_The_Power_of_Thinking_Without_Thinking" title="Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking">Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking</a>. New York: <a href="Little%2C_Brown_and_Company" title="Little, Brown and Company">Little, Brown and Company</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGourlay2007" class="citation book cs1">Gourlay, Stephen (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rethinkingknowle0000unse/page/20/mode/2up">"An Activity Centered Framework for Knowledge Management"</a>. In McInerney, Claire R.; Day, Ronald E. (eds.). Rethinking Knowledge Management: From Knowledge Objects to Knowledge Processes. Springer. pp. 21–64. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-71010-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHodgkin1991" class="citation magazine cs1">Hodgkin, R (1991-09-27). "Michael Polanyi – Prophet of life, the universe and everything". Times Higher Education Supplement. p. 15.</cite></li>

<li><a href="Ikujiro_Nonaka" title="Ikujiro Nonaka">Nonaka, Ikujiro</a>. 1990. Management of Knowledge Creation. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun-sha.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNonakaTakeuchi1995" class="citation book cs1">Nonaka, Ikujiro; <a href="Hirotaka_Takeuchi" title="Hirotaka Takeuchi">Takeuchi, Hirotaka</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/knowledgecreatin00nona">The Knowledge-creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-509269-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNonakaToyamaKonno2000" class="citation journal cs1">Nonaka, Ikujiro; Toyama, Ryoko; Konno, Noboru (February 2000). "SECI, Ba and Leadership: a Unified Model of Dynamic Knowledge Creation". Long Range Planning. 33 (1): 5–34. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0024-6301%2899%2900115-6">10.1016/s0024-6301(99)00115-6</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPatriotta2004" class="citation journal cs1">Patriotta, G (2004). "Studying organizational knowledge". Knowledge Management Research and Practice. 2 (1): 3–12. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.421.1462">10.1.1.421.1462</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.kmrp.8500017">10.1057/palgrave.kmrp.8500017</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62182682">62182682</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPolanyi1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Polanyi, Michael</a> (1958). Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post Critical Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-226-67288-3</bdi>.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPolanyi1966" class="citation book cs1">Polanyi, Michael (1966). The Tacit Dimension. Doubleday & Co.</cite>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFPolanyi1983" class="citation book cs1">Polanyi, Michael (1983). "Tacit Knowing". The Tacit Dimension. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith.</cite></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPolanyi1997" class="citation book cs1">Polanyi, Michael (1997). Allen, R.T. (ed.). Science, Economics and Philosophy: Selected Papers of Michael Polanyi. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReber1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Arthur_S._Reber" title="Arthur S. Reber">Reber, Arthur S.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/implicitlearning0000rebe">Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: an essay on the cognitive unconscious</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-510658-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSanders1988" class="citation book cs1">Sanders, A. F. (1988). Michael Polanyi's Post-critical Epistemology: A Reconstruction of Some Aspects of 'Tacit Knowing'. Amsterdam: Rodopi.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2003" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Mark K. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://infed.org/michael-polanyi-and-tacit-knowledge/">"Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Pedagogy and Informal Education. Retrieved 2024-03-21.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTsoukas2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tsoukas, H. (2003). "Do we really understand tacit knowledge?". In Easterby-Smith; Lyles (eds.). The Blackwell handbook of organizational learning and knowledge management. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 411–427.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWenger1998" class="citation book cs1">Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Timothy_Wilson" title="Timothy Wilson">Wilson, Timothy D.</a> (2002). Strangers to ourselves: discovering the adaptive unconscious. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-674-01382-4</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Knowledge_management77" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">Intellectual capital</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_intensive_services" title="Knowledge intensive services">Knowledge intensive services</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_intensive_business_services" title="Knowledge intensive business services">Knowledge intensive business services</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_organization_(management)" title="Knowledge organization (management)">Knowledge organization (management)</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_enterprise" title="Knowledge enterprise">Knowledge-intensive company</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">Knowledge sharing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronic systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_management_software" title="Knowledge management software">Knowledge management software</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">Business intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_content_management" title="Enterprise content management">Enterprise content management</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiki_software" title="Wiki software">Wiki software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_knowledge_management" title="Personal knowledge management">Personal knowledge management</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_rationale" title="Design rationale">Design rationale</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Chief_knowledge_officer" title="Chief knowledge officer">Chief knowledge officer</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_team" title="Virtual team">Virtual team</a></li>

<li><a href="Communities_of_innovation" title="Communities of innovation">Communities of innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community of practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_of_interest" title="Community of interest">Community of interest</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Journal_of_Knowledge_Management" title="Journal of Knowledge Management">Journal of Knowledge Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_Management_Research_%26_Practice" title="Knowledge Management Research & Practice">Knowledge Management Research & Practice</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox674" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Authority control databases: National </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4161419-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph314821&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-04-11" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Tacit_knowledge&oldid=1285096171">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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